Phytochemistry, Molecular Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Applications of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban: A Critical Review for Modern Herbal Medicine and Drug Development

Abstract

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban is a widely recognized medicinal plant extensively used in traditional systems of medicine and increasingly explored for its pharmacological potential. Despite numerous reports on its therapeutic properties, a critical integration of its phytochemical composition with underlying molecular mechanisms and clinical relevance remains limited. This review provides a comprehensive and critical evaluation of the phytochemistry, biological activities, and therapeutic applications of C. asiatica, with particular emphasis on its major triterpenoid constituents, including asiaticoside, madecassoside, asiatic acid, and madecassic acid. These compounds are analyzed in relation to their roles in modulating key signaling pathways associated with oxidative stress, inflammation (notably nuclear factor kappa and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways), neuroprotection, and collagen synthesis. Current experimental evidence is examined to highlight both the pharmacological potential and the limitations of existing studies, including variability in extract composition, lack of standardization, and insufficient clinical validation. In addition, emerging approaches to enhance bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy are discussed. By bridging traditional knowledge with mechanistic and pharmacological insights, this review outlines critical research gaps and provides a framework for the rational development and application of C. asiatica in modern herbal medicine and drug discovery.